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16 Janelia Publications

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    Svoboda Lab
    10/30/13 | Distinct balance of excitation and inhibition in an interareal feedforward and feedback circuit of mouse visual cortex.
    Yang W, Carrasquillo Y, Hooks BM, Nerbonne JM, Burkhalter A
    The Journal of Neuroscience. 2013 Oct 30;33(44):17373-84. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2515-13.2013

    Mouse visual cortex is subdivided into multiple distinct, hierarchically organized areas that are interconnected through feedforward (FF) and feedback (FB) pathways. The principal synaptic targets of FF and FB axons that reciprocally interconnect primary visual cortex (V1) with the higher lateromedial extrastriate area (LM) are pyramidal cells (Pyr) and parvalbumin (PV)-expressing GABAergic interneurons. Recordings in slices of mouse visual cortex have shown that layer 2/3 Pyr cells receive excitatory monosynaptic FF and FB inputs, which are opposed by disynaptic inhibition. Most notably, inhibition is stronger in the FF than FB pathway, suggesting pathway-specific organization of feedforward inhibition (FFI). To explore the hypothesis that this difference is due to diverse pathway-specific strengths of the inputs to PV neurons we have performed subcellular Channelrhodopsin-2-assisted circuit mapping in slices of mouse visual cortex. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings were obtained from retrobead-labeled FFV1→LM- and FBLM→V1-projecting Pyr cells, as well as from tdTomato-expressing PV neurons. The results show that the FFV1→LM pathway provides on average 3.7-fold stronger depolarizing input to layer 2/3 inhibitory PV neurons than to neighboring excitatory Pyr cells. In the FBLM→V1 pathway, depolarizing inputs to layer 2/3 PV neurons and Pyr cells were balanced. Balanced inputs were also found in the FFV1→LM pathway to layer 5 PV neurons and Pyr cells, whereas FBLM→V1 inputs to layer 5 were biased toward Pyr cells. The findings indicate that FFI in FFV1→LM and FBLM→V1 circuits are organized in a pathway- and lamina-specific fashion.

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    10/29/13 | Fast structural responses of gap junction membrane domains to AB5 toxins.
    Majoul IV, Gao L, Betzig E, Onichtchouk D, Butkevich E, Kozlov Y, Bukauskas F, Bennett MV, Lippincott-Schwartz J, Duden R
    Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2013 Oct 29;110(44):E4125-33. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1315850110

    Gap junctions (GJs) represent connexin-rich membrane domains that connect interiors of adjoining cells in mammalian tissues. How fast GJs can respond to bacterial pathogens has not been known previously. Using Bessel beam plane illumination and confocal spinning disk microscopy, we found fast ( 500 ms) formation of connexin-depleted regions (CDRs) inside GJ plaques between cells exposed to AB5 toxins. CDR formation appears as a fast redistribution of connexin channels within GJ plaques with minor changes in outline or geometry. CDR formation does not depend on membrane trafficking or submembrane cytoskeleton and has no effect on GJ conductance. However, CDR responses depend on membrane lipids, can be modified by cholesterol-clustering agents and extracellular K(+) ion concentration, and influence cAMP signaling. The CDR response of GJ plaques to bacterial toxins is a phenomenon observed for all tested connexin isoforms. Through signaling, the CDR response may enable cells to sense exposure to AB5 toxins. CDR formation may reflect lipid-phase separation events in the biological membrane of the GJ plaque, leading to increased connexin packing and lipid reorganization. Our data demonstrate very fast dynamics (in the millisecond-to-second range) within GJ plaques, which previously were considered to be relatively stable, long-lived structures.

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    10/25/13 | Correlative photoactivated localization and scanning electron microscopy.
    Kopek BG, Shtengel G, Grimm JB, Clayton DA, Hess HF
    PLoS One. 2013 Oct 25;8(10):e77209. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0077209

    The ability to localize proteins precisely within subcellular space is crucial to understanding the functioning of biological systems. Recently, we described a protocol that correlates a precise map of fluorescent fusion proteins localized using three-dimensional super-resolution optical microscopy with the fine ultrastructural context of three-dimensional electron micrographs. While it achieved the difficult simultaneous objectives of high photoactivated fluorophore preservation and ultrastructure preservation, it required a super-resolution optical and specialized electron microscope that is not available to many researchers. We present here a faster and more practical protocol with the advantage of a simpler two-dimensional optical (Photoactivated Localization Microscopy (PALM)) and scanning electron microscope (SEM) system that retains the often mutually exclusive attributes of fluorophore preservation and ultrastructure preservation. As before, cryosections were prepared using the Tokuyasu protocol, but the staining protocol was modified to be amenable for use in a standard SEM without the need for focused ion beam ablation. We show the versatility of this technique by labeling different cellular compartments and structures including mitochondrial nucleoids, peroxisomes, and the nuclear lamina. We also demonstrate simultaneous two-color PALM imaging with correlated electron micrographs. Lastly, this technique can be used with small-molecule dyes as demonstrated with actin labeling using phalloidin conjugated to a caged dye. By retaining the dense protein labeling expected for super-resolution microscopy combined with ultrastructural preservation, simplifying the tools required for correlative microscopy, and expanding the number of useful labels we expect this method to be accessible and valuable to a wide variety of researchers.

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    10/23/13 | Nonlinear dynamics support a linear population code in a retinal target-tracking circuit.
    Leonardo A, Meister M
    The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience. 2013 Oct 23;33(43):16971-82. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2257-13.2013

    A basic task faced by the visual system of many organisms is to accurately track the position of moving prey. The retina is the first stage in the processing of such stimuli; the nature of the transformation here, from photons to spike trains, constrains not only the ultimate fidelity of the tracking signal but also the ease with which it can be extracted by other brain regions. Here we demonstrate that a population of fast-OFF ganglion cells in the salamander retina, whose dynamics are governed by a nonlinear circuit, serve to compute the future position of the target over hundreds of milliseconds. The extrapolated position of the target is not found by stimulus reconstruction but is instead computed by a weighted sum of ganglion cell outputs, the population vector average (PVA). The magnitude of PVA extrapolation varies systematically with target size, speed, and acceleration, such that large targets are tracked most accurately at high speeds, and small targets at low speeds, just as is seen in the motion of real prey. Tracking precision reaches the resolution of single photoreceptors, and the PVA algorithm performs more robustly than several alternative algorithms. If the salamander brain uses the fast-OFF cell circuit for target extrapolation as we suggest, the circuit dynamics should leave a microstructure on the behavior that may be measured in future experiments. Our analysis highlights the utility of simple computations that, while not globally optimal, are efficiently implemented and have close to optimal performance over a limited but ethologically relevant range of stimuli.

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    10/19/13 | Biophysical mechanisms of computation in a looming sensitive neuron.
    Simon P. Peron
    The Computing Dendrite. 2013 Oct 19;11:277-293. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4614-8094-5_17

    The lobula giant movement detector (LGMD) is a large-field visual interneuron believed to be involved in collision avoidance and escape behaviors in orthopteran insects, such as locusts. Responses to approaching—or looming—stimuli are highly stereotypical, producing a peak that signals an angular size threshold. Over the past several decades, investigators have elucidated many of the mechanisms underpinning this response, demonstrating that the LGMD implements a multiplication in log-transformed coordinates. Furthermore, the LGMD possesses several mechanisms that preclude it responding to non-looming stimuli. This chapter explores these biophysical mechanisms, as well as highlighting insights the LGMD provides into general principles of dendritic integration.

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    Gonen Lab
    10/15/13 | Local cAMP signaling in disease at a glance.
    Gold MG, Gonen T, Scott JD
    Journal of Cell Science. 2013 Oct 15;126(Pt 20):4537-43. doi: 10.1242/jcs.133751

    The second messenger cyclic AMP (cAMP) operates in discrete subcellular regions within which proteins that synthesize, break down or respond to the second messenger are precisely organized. A burgeoning knowledge of compartmentalized cAMP signaling is revealing how the local control of signaling enzyme activity impacts upon disease. The aim of this Cell Science at a Glance article and the accompanying poster is to highlight how misregulation of local cyclic AMP signaling can have pathophysiological consequences. We first introduce the core molecular machinery for cAMP signaling, which includes the cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA), and then consider the role of A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs) in coordinating different cAMP-responsive proteins. The latter sections illustrate the emerging role of local cAMP signaling in four disease areas: cataracts, cancer, diabetes and cardiovascular diseases.

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    10/14/13 | A neuron-based screening platform for optimizing genetically-encoded calcium indicators.
    Wardill TJ, Chen T, Schreiter ER, Hasseman JP, Tsegaye G, Fosque BF, Behnam R, Shields BC, Ramirez M, Kimmel BE, Kerr RA, Jayaraman V, Looger LL, Svoboda K, Kim DS
    PLoS One. 2013;8:e77728. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0077728

    Fluorescent protein-based sensors for detecting neuronal activity have been developed largely based on non-neuronal screening systems. However, the dynamics of neuronal state variables (e.g., voltage, calcium, etc.) are typically very rapid compared to those of non-excitable cells. We developed an electrical stimulation and fluorescence imaging platform based on dissociated rat primary neuronal cultures. We describe its use in testing genetically-encoded calcium indicators (GECIs). Efficient neuronal GECI expression was achieved using lentiviruses containing a neuronal-selective gene promoter. Action potentials (APs) and thus neuronal calcium levels were quantitatively controlled by electrical field stimulation, and fluorescence images were recorded. Images were segmented to extract fluorescence signals corresponding to individual GECI-expressing neurons, which improved sensitivity over full-field measurements. We demonstrate the superiority of screening GECIs in neurons compared with solution measurements. Neuronal screening was useful for efficient identification of variants with both improved response kinetics and high signal amplitudes. This platform can be used to screen many types of sensors with cellular resolution under realistic conditions where neuronal state variables are in relevant ranges with respect to timing and amplitude.

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    Menon Lab
    10/11/13 | Dynamic Bayesian clustering.
    Fowler A, Menon V, Heard NA
    Journal of bioinformatics and computational biology. 2013 Oct;11(5):1342001. doi: 10.1142/S0219720013420018

    Clusters of time series data may change location and memberships over time; in gene expression data, this occurs as groups of genes or samples respond differently to stimuli or experimental conditions at different times. In order to uncover this underlying temporal structure, we consider dynamic clusters with time-dependent parameters which split and merge over time, enabling cluster memberships to change. These interesting time-dependent structures are useful in understanding the development of organisms or complex organs, and could not be identified using traditional clustering methods. In cell cycle data, these time-dependent structure may provide links between genes and stages of the cell cycle, whilst in developmental data sets they may highlight key developmental transitions.

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    Menon Lab
    10/09/13 | The influence of synaptic weight distribution on neuronal population dynamics.
    Iyer R, Menon V, Buice M, Koch C, Mihalas S
    PLoS computational biology. 2013 Oct;9(10):e1003248. doi: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1003248

    The manner in which different distributions of synaptic weights onto cortical neurons shape their spiking activity remains open. To characterize a homogeneous neuronal population, we use the master equation for generalized leaky integrate-and-fire neurons with shot-noise synapses. We develop fast semi-analytic numerical methods to solve this equation for either current or conductance synapses, with and without synaptic depression. We show that its solutions match simulations of equivalent neuronal networks better than those of the Fokker-Planck equation and we compute bounds on the network response to non-instantaneous synapses. We apply these methods to study different synaptic weight distributions in feed-forward networks. We characterize the synaptic amplitude distributions using a set of measures, called tail weight numbers, designed to quantify the preponderance of very strong synapses. Even if synaptic amplitude distributions are equated for both the total current and average synaptic weight, distributions with sparse but strong synapses produce higher responses for small inputs, leading to a larger operating range. Furthermore, despite their small number, such synapses enable the network to respond faster and with more stability in the face of external fluctuations.

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    10/04/13 | Unsupervised segmentation of noisy electron microscopy images using salient watersheds and region merging.
    Navlakha S, Ahammad P, Myers EW, Myers EW
    BMC Bioinformatics. 2013 Oct 4;14:294. doi: 10.1186/1471-2105-14-294

    Background: Segmenting electron microscopy (EM) images of cellular and subcellular processes in the nervous system is a key step in many bioimaging pipelines involving classification and labeling of ultrastructures. However, fully automated techniques to segment images are often susceptible to noise and heterogeneity in EM images (e.g. different histological preparations, different organisms, different brain regions, etc.). Supervised techniques to address this problem are often helpful but require large sets of training data, which are often difficult to obtain in practice, especially across many conditions. Results: We propose a new, principled unsupervised algorithm to segment EM images using a two-step approach: edge detection via salient watersheds following by robust region merging. We performed experiments to gather EM neuroimages of two organisms (mouse and fruit fly) using different histological preparations and generated manually curated ground-truth segmentations. We compared our algorithm against several state-of- the-art unsupervised segmentation algorithms and found superior performance using two standard measures of under-and over-segmentation error. Conclusions: Our algorithm is general and may be applicable to other large-scale segmentation problems for bioimages.

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