Efficient retrograde access to projection neurons for the delivery of sensors and effectors constitutes an important and enabling capability for neural circuit dissection. Such an approach would also be useful for gene therapy, including the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders characterized by pathological spread through functionally connected and highly distributed networks. Viral vectors, in particular, are powerful gene delivery vehicles for the nervous system, but all available tools suffer from inefficient retrograde transport or limited clinical potential. To address this need, we applied in vivo directed evolution to engineer potent retrograde functionality into the capsid of adeno-associated virus (AAV), a vector that has shown promise in neuroscience research and the clinic. A newly evolved variant, rAAV2-retro, permits robust retrograde access to projection neurons with efficiency comparable to classical synthetic retrograde tracers and enables sufficient sensor/effector expression for functional circuit interrogation and in vivo genome editing in targeted neuronal populations. VIDEO ABSTRACT.

Transmembrane transporter proteins allow the passage of essentially all biologically important molecules across the lipid membranes of cells and organelles and are therefore of central importance to all forms of life. Current methods of transporter measurement, however, are lacking in several dimensions. Herein, a method is presented in which oscillating stimuli are presented to transporter-expressing cells, and activity is measured through imaging the corresponding oscillating responses of intracellular fluorescent sensors. This approach yields continuous temporal readouts of transporter activity and can therefore be used to measure time-dependent responses to drugs and other stimuli. Because of the periodic nature of the response, temporal Fourier transforms can be used to identify and quantify regions of interest in the xy plane and to overcome noise. This technique, called the Oscillating Stimulus Transporter Assay (OSTA), should greatly facilitate both functional characterization of transporters as well as high-throughput screening of drugs for transporters of particular pathophysiological interest.